8. THE EITHER-OR THINKING THIS IS THE SO-CALLED BLACK-OR-WHITE FALLACY. ESSENTIALLY, IT SAYS "EITHER YOU BELIEVE WHAT I'M SAYING OR YOU MUST BELIEVE EXACTLY THE OPPOSITE." HERE IS AN EXAMPLE OF THE BLACK-OR-WHITE FALLACY: SINCE YOU DON'T BELIEVE THAT THE EARTH IS TEETERING ON THE EDGE OF DESTRUCTION, YOU MUST BELIEVE THAT POLLUTION AND OTHER ADVERSE EFFECTS THAT MAN HAS ON THE ENVIRONMENT ARE OF NO CONCERN WHATSOEVER. THE ARGUMENT ABOVE ASSUMES THAT THERE ARE ONLY TWO POSSIBLE ALTERNATIVES OPEN TO US. THERE IS NO ROOM FOR A MIDDLE GROUND.
9. THE "ALL THINGS ARE EQUAL" FALLACY THIS FALLACY IS COMMITTED WHEN IT IS ASSUMED, WITHOUT JUSTIFICATION, THAT BACKGROUND CONDITIONS HAVE REMAINED THE SAME AT DIFFERENT TIMES/LOCATIONS. IN MOST INSTANCES, THIS IS AN UNWARRANTED ASSUMPTION FOR THE SIMPLE REASON THAT THINGS RARELY REMAIN THE SAME OVER EXTENDED PERIODS OF TIME, AND THINGS RARELY REMAIN THE SAME FROM PLACE TO PLACE. THE LAST DEMOCRAT WINNER OF THE NEW HAMPSHIRE PRIMARY WON THE GENERAL ELECTION. THIS YEAR, THE WINNER OF THE NEW HAMPSHIRE PRIMARY WILL WIN THE GENERAL ELECTION. THE ASSUMPTION OPERATIVE IN THIS ARGUMENT IS THAT NOTHING HAS CHANGED SINCE THE LAST PRIMARY. NO EVIDENCE OR JUSTIFICATION IS OFFERED FOR THIS ASSUMPTION.
10. THE FALLACY OF EQUIVOCATION THE FALLACY OF EQUIVOCATION OCCURS WHEN A WORD OR PHRASE THAT HAS MORE THAN ONE MEANING IS EMPLOYED IN DIFFERENT MEANINGS THROUGHOUT THE ARGUMENT.
"EVERY SOCIETY IS, OF COURSE, REPRESSIVE TO SOME EXTENT - AS SIGMUND FREUD POINTED OUT, REPRESSION IS THE PRICE WE PAY FOR CIVILIZATION." (JOHN P. ROCHE- POLITICAL COLUMNIST) IN THIS EXAMPLE, THE WORD REPRESSION IS USED IN TWO COMPLETELY DIFFERENT CONTEXTS. "REPRESSION" IN FREUD'S MIND MEANT RERSTRICTING SEXUAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL DESIRES. "REPRESSION" IN THE SECOND CONTEXT DOES NOT MEAN RESPRESSION OF INDIVIDUAL DESIRES, BUT GOVERNMENT RESTRICTION OF INDIVIDUAL LIBERTIES, SUCH AS THAT IN A TOTALITARIAN STATE. 11. NON SEQUITUR THIS MEANS "DOES NOT FOLLOW," WHICH IS SHORT FOR: THE CONCLUSION DOES NOT FOLLOW FROM THE PREMISE. TO SAY, "THE HOUSE IS WHITE; THEREFORE IT MUST BE BIG" IS AN EXAMPLE. IT MAY BE A BIG HOUSE BUT THERE IS NO INTRINSIC CONNECTION WITH ITS BEING WHITE.
12. ARGUMENT AD POPULUM A GROUP OF KINDERGARTNERS ARE STUDYING A FROG, TRYING TO DETERMINE ITS SEX. "I WONDER IF IT'S A BOY FROG OR A GIRL FROG," SAYS ONE STUDENT. "I KNOW HOW WE CAN TELL!" PIPES UP ANOTHER. "ALL RIGHT, HOW?" ASKS THE TEACHER, RESIGNED TO THE WORST. BEAMS THE CHILD: "WE CAN VOTE."
THIS IS ARGUMENTUM AD POPULUM, THE BELIEF THAT TRUTH CAN BE DETERMINED BY MORE OR LESS PUTTING IT TO A VOTE. DEMOCRACY IS A VERY NICE THING, BUT IT DOESN'T DETERMINE TRUTH. POLLS ARE GOOD FOR TELLING YOU WHAT PEOPLE THINK, NOT WHETHER THOSE THOUGHTS ARE CORRECT.
COMMON STUDENT ERRORS WE'VE GRADED ESSAYS FROM THOUSANDS OF STUDENTS AND WE SEE RECURRING ERRORS TIME AND TIME AGAIN. THE MOST COMMON ERROR ON THE ANALYSIS OF ARGUMENT ESSAY IS "SPLITTING HAIRS." SPLITTING HAIRS REFERS TO TRYING TO DISSECT ERRORS THAT DO NO FALL INTO THE CATEGORIES LISTED HERE. REMEMBER THAT ALL QUESTIONS HAVE SERIOUS ERRORS. THE DANGER IS THAT YOU COULD GET DISTRACTED ON A MINOR ISSUE AND MISS THE SERIOUS ERRORS THAT THE E-RATER AND THE GRADER WANT TO SEE. 3C. ANALYSIS OF ARGUMENT: TEMPLATE
TEMPLATE AS WITH THE ISSUE ESSAY, THERE IS NO SINGLE "CORRECT," WAY TO ORGANIZE AN ARGUMENT ESSAY. IN OUR VIEW, HOWEVER, YOUR ESSAY SHOULD INCLUDE SEPARATE "INTRODUCTION" AND "CONCLUSION" PARAGRAPHS, AS WELL AS AT LEAST TWO "BODY" PARAGRAPHS IN WHICH YOU DEVELOP YOUR CRITIQUE OF THE STATED
